Origins
Attila was born around 406 CE into the ruling family of the Hunnic confederation, a nomadic empire that had emerged from the Eurasian steppes to dominate the Pannonian Basin by the early fifth century. His uncle Rugila had established Hunnic hegemony over numerous Germanic tribes and extracted substantial tribute from the Eastern Roman Empire. Little is known of Attila’s early life, though he likely received the traditional education of a Hunnic nobleman, learning horsemanship, archery, and the arts of war that made the Huns such formidable opponents.
The Hunnic political system was based on personal loyalty and military prowess rather than fixed territorial control. Hunnic kings ruled through a combination of charismatic leadership, successful warfare, and the distribution of tribute and plunder to their followers. This system required constant military activity to maintain cohesion, as failure to provide wealth and victory could quickly lead to the dissolution of tribal alliances.
When Rugila died in 434, power passed jointly to his nephews Attila and Bleda. The brothers immediately renegotiated the tribute arrangement with Constantinople, doubling the annual payment to 700 pounds of gold and securing the return of Hunnic refugees. This early diplomatic success demonstrated Attila’s shrewd understanding of Roman weaknesses and his ability to exploit the empire’s preference for buying peace rather than fighting for it.
Reign of Terror
Attila eliminated his brother Bleda around 445, becoming sole ruler of the Hunnic Empire at its territorial zenith. His domain stretched from the Rhine to the Ural Mountains, encompassing dozens of subject tribes including Ostrogoths, Gepids, and various Germanic peoples. Unlike previous nomadic leaders who focused primarily on raiding, Attila developed a sophisticated understanding of Roman politics and diplomacy, using both military pressure and political manipulation to achieve his goals.
Between 447 and 449, Attila launched devastating campaigns against the Eastern Roman Empire after Emperor Theodosius II attempted to assassinate him and reduce tribute payments. Hunnic forces swept through the Balkans, capturing over seventy cities including the major strongholds of Naissus and Serdica. The Romans were forced to evacuate a buffer zone south of the Danube and triple their annual tribute to 2,100 pounds of gold. These victories established Attila as the most feared barbarian leader of his era and demonstrated the vulnerability of supposedly impregnable Roman defenses.
Turning west in 451, Attila invaded Gaul with an enormous army that included Huns, Germanic allies, and various other subject peoples. His siege of Orleans failed when Roman general Aetius arrived with a coalition army of Romans, Visigoths, Franks, and other Germanic federates. The subsequent Battle of the Catalaunian Plains resulted in horrific casualties on both sides but forced Attila to withdraw across the Rhine. Though not a decisive defeat, this campaign marked the beginning of the end of Hunnic expansion and revealed the limits of even Attila’s military capabilities.
Historical Significance
Attila’s invasion of Italy in 452 brought his forces to the gates of Rome itself, causing panic throughout the Western Empire. Emperor Valentinian III fled to Ravenna while Pope Leo I famously met Attila at the Po River to negotiate the city’s salvation. Whether influenced by papal diplomacy, disease among his troops, or the promise of tribute, Attila withdrew without sacking Rome. This retreat enhanced his reputation for both ruthlessness and pragmatic restraint, qualities that made him an effective ruler of diverse peoples.
The Hunnic Empire collapsed rapidly after Attila’s sudden death in 453, traditionally attributed to excessive drinking on his wedding night to a Germanic princess named Ildico. His sons’ inability to maintain unity among the subject tribes led to successful revolts by the Gepids and other Germanic peoples at the Battle of Nedao in 454. This collapse fundamentally altered the balance of power in Europe, allowing various Germanic kingdoms to establish themselves in former Roman territories while removing the last major nomadic threat to the empire’s northern frontiers.
Modern scholarship has moved beyond the simple “barbarian destroyer” narrative to recognize Attila as a sophisticated political leader who understood the complex dynamics of late Roman politics. His ability to maintain loyalty among diverse tribal groups, manipulate Roman diplomatic procedures, and coordinate large-scale military operations across vast distances demonstrates remarkable organizational and leadership skills. While undoubtedly responsible for enormous destruction and loss of life, Attila also facilitated cultural exchange between steppe and sedentary civilizations and influenced the development of early medieval European political structures.
Key Developments
- c. 406: Birth of Attila in the Pannonian Basin
- 434: Becomes co-ruler of the Huns with his brother Bleda following Rugila’s death
- 435: Negotiates Treaty of Margus with Eastern Roman Empire, doubling tribute payments
- c. 445: Eliminates Bleda and becomes sole ruler of the Hunnic Empire
- 447: Launches major invasion of Eastern Roman Empire through the Balkans
- 447: Devastates Thrace and captures Naissus, Serdica, and dozens of other cities
- 448: Forces new treaty with Constantinople tripling annual tribute to 2,100 pounds of gold
- 450: Demands marriage to Honoria, sister of Western Emperor Valentinian III
- 451: Invades Gaul with massive army of Huns and Germanic allies
- 451: Besieges Orleans but forced to retreat by Roman-Visigothic coalition
- 451: Fights inconclusive Battle of the Catalaunian Plains against Aetius
- 452: Invades northern Italy, capturing Aquileia and advancing toward Rome
- 452: Meets Pope Leo I and withdraws from Italy without attacking Rome
- 453: Dies suddenly on wedding night to Germanic princess Ildico
- 454: Hunnic Empire fragments after his sons’ defeat at Battle of Nedao