Origins
The Aztec Triple Alliance (Excan Tlatoloyan) formed in 1428 when three city-states—Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan—overthrew the dominant Tepanec kingdom of Azcapotzalco. The Mexica people of Tenochtitlan, relative newcomers to the Valley of Mexico, had served as mercenaries for Azcapotzalco. When the Tepanec ruler attempted to eliminate the Mexica, the coalition of formerly subject peoples defeated him, establishing a new political order in central Mesoamerica.
The alliance was engineered by two figures: Itzcoatl, the Mexica ruler, and Tlacaelel, his half-brother and chief advisor. Tlacaelel was perhaps the most influential individual in Aztec history, serving as cihuacoatl (principal minister) under four successive rulers. He orchestrated not only the military campaigns that built the empire but also an ideological revolution, burning older historical records and creating a new narrative that portrayed the Mexica as chosen people destined to feed the sun god through human sacrifice and to rule over other nations.
The city of Tenochtitlan, founded in 1325 on an island in Lake Texcoco, became the alliance’s dominant partner. From modest origins as a marshy refuge, the Mexica transformed their island into one of the world’s largest cities, perhaps 200,000 inhabitants by 1519. Causeways, canals, aqueducts, and chinampas (floating gardens) sustained this urban marvel. When Spanish conquistadors first saw Tenochtitlan, they compared it to Venice—a lakeside metropolis of temples, palaces, and bustling markets surpassing any European city of its day.
Structure & Function
The Triple Alliance was formally an equal partnership, with tribute divided: two-fifths each to Tenochtitlan and Texcoco, one-fifth to Tlacopan. In practice, Tenochtitlan dominated increasingly over time, especially after a succession crisis in Texcoco around 1515. The alliance made decisions through councils of rulers, though Tenochtitlan’s tlahtoani (speaker/ruler) exercised preponderant influence. Each city maintained its own internal governance, territories, and military forces while coordinating external campaigns.
The alliance controlled its vast territory—stretching from the Gulf Coast to the Pacific, from central Mexico to Guatemala—primarily through tribute rather than direct administration. Conquered peoples retained local rulers who pledged loyalty and delivered specified goods: cacao, cotton, feathers, jade, gold, and human captives for sacrifice. Aztec merchants (pochteca) operated long-distance trade networks, serving also as spies and diplomats. Military garrisons were rare; the threat of retribution against rebels maintained compliance.
Warfare was central to Aztec society. The “Flowery Wars” (xochiyaoyotl) were ritualized conflicts with unconquered neighbors that provided sacrificial victims without the costs of full conquest. Military achievement determined social mobility; warriors who captured enemies alive rose through ranks, gaining lands, tribute, and prestige. Human sacrifice, though shocking to Europeans, was integral to Aztec cosmology: the sun required human blood to continue its journey, and the gods had sacrificed themselves to create humanity. Captive warriors became messengers to the gods.
Historical Significance
In less than a century, the Triple Alliance created Mesoamerica’s largest empire, incorporating perhaps 5-6 million people across 400-500 city-states. This was empire by tribute rather than integration: subject peoples paid goods and captives while retaining local customs, languages, and rulers. The system extracted enormous wealth—Tenochtitlan’s markets offered goods from across Mesoamerica—but generated resentment that proved fatal when the Spanish arrived.
The alliance’s rapid collapse (1519-1521) demonstrated both its strengths and weaknesses. Hernán Cortés landed with fewer than 600 men, but he gained allies among peoples chafing under Aztec demands, particularly the Tlaxcalans. Epidemic diseases, especially smallpox, devastated the indigenous population. The final siege of Tenochtitlan required Spanish leadership but relied primarily on tens of thousands of indigenous allies. The alliance, built on coerced tribute and sacrificial demand, dissolved when subject peoples saw opportunity to escape Mexica dominance.
The Aztec legacy persists in modern Mexico. The eagle on a cactus devouring a serpent—the mythical sign marking Tenochtitlan’s site—appears on Mexico’s flag and currency. Nahuatl words (chocolate, tomato, avocado, coyote) entered global vocabulary. The massive ruins beneath Mexico City remind inhabitants of the metropolis built on the same spot five centuries earlier. For Mexicans, the Aztec past represents both indigenous achievement and the trauma of conquest—a complex heritage shaping national identity.
Key Developments
- 1325: Mexica found Tenochtitlan on Lake Texcoco island
- 1426: Tepanec ruler Maxtla threatens Mexica
- 1428: Triple Alliance defeats Azcapotzalco; alliance formed
- 1428-1440: Itzcoatl rules; Tlacaelel burns historical records
- 1440-1469: Moctezuma I expands empire; Great Temple begun
- 1450-1454: Famine; increased human sacrifice
- 1469-1481: Axayacatl rules; defeats Tlatelolco
- 1473: Tenochtitlan absorbs twin city Tlatelolco
- 1481-1486: Tizoc rules; expansion slows
- 1486-1502: Ahuitzotl rules; empire reaches greatest extent
- 1487: Great Temple rededicated; mass sacrifices
- 1502-1520: Moctezuma II rules; consolidates rather than expands
- 1519: Cortés lands at Veracruz; allies with Tlaxcala
- 1519 November: Spanish enter Tenochtitlan; Moctezuma captive
- 1520 June: La Noche Triste; Spanish expelled; Moctezuma dies
- 1520-1521: Smallpox epidemic devastates population
- 1521 May-August: Siege of Tenochtitlan
- 1521 August 13: Cuauhtémoc surrenders; Aztec Empire ends