Origins
Charles, later known as Charlemagne (“Charles the Great”), was born around 742 CE into the Carolingian dynasty that had risen to dominate the Frankish kingdoms. His grandfather, Charles Martel, had gained fame by halting Muslim expansion at the Battle of Tours in 732, while his father, Pepin the Short, became the first Carolingian king after deposing the last Merovingian ruler with papal blessing. This family background provided Charles with both military prowess and legitimacy rooted in Christian kingship.
Charles received a practical education focused on warfare, governance, and Christian doctrine rather than classical learning. He grew to impressive physical stature—nearly six feet tall in an age when most men were much shorter—and displayed exceptional energy and ambition from youth. His formative experiences included witnessing his father’s successful campaigns and the complex relationship between Frankish royalty and the papacy, lessons that would profoundly shape his approach to rule.
When Pepin died in 768, the Frankish realm was divided between Charles and his younger brother Carloman according to Frankish custom. This arrangement created immediate tensions, but Carloman’s unexpected death in 771 allowed Charles to reunite the kingdom under his sole authority, setting the stage for unprecedented expansion.
Conquests and Reign
Charlemagne’s reign was characterized by nearly constant warfare that expanded Frankish territory far beyond its traditional boundaries. His most prolonged conflict was the Saxon Wars (772-804), a brutal thirty-two-year campaign to subdue and Christianize the pagan Saxon tribes in northern Germany. These wars involved forced conversions, mass deportations, and the destruction of Saxon religious sites, ultimately incorporating vast territories into the Frankish realm while spreading Christianity through conquest.
Simultaneously, Charlemagne intervened in Italian politics, defeating the Lombard kingdom in 774 and assuming the title “King of the Lombards.” This victory brought him into closer alliance with the papacy while establishing Frankish dominance over northern Italy. He also conducted successful campaigns against the Avars in the Danube region, Muslims in Spain (though suffering a famous defeat at Roncevaux in 778), and various Slavic peoples along his eastern borders.
The culmination of Charlemagne’s rise came on Christmas Day 800, when Pope Leo III crowned him “Emperor of the Romans” in St. Peter’s Basilica. This papal coronation created the Holy Roman Empire and revived the concept of a Western European empire for the first time since the fall of Rome. While sources suggest Charlemagne claimed surprise at the coronation, it represented the logical outcome of his expanding power and his role as protector of the Christian Church.
Administrative and Cultural Achievements
Beyond military conquest, Charlemagne proved an effective administrator who created lasting governmental structures. He divided his vast empire into counties administered by appointed counts who answered directly to the crown, while sending out royal inspectors (missi dominici) to ensure local compliance with imperial policy. This system provided greater central control than previous Germanic kingdoms had achieved.
Charlemagne’s court at Aachen became a center of learning known as the Carolingian Renaissance. He recruited scholars like Alcuin of York to establish schools, standardize liturgy, and preserve classical texts. Though personally illiterate until late in life, Charlemagne mandated education for clergy and promoted the development of Carolingian minuscule, a clear script that improved manuscript production and preservation of knowledge.
The emperor also standardized weights, measures, and currency across his territories while promoting trade and economic development. His legal reforms attempted to create uniform justice, though local customs often persisted. These administrative innovations helped transform a collection of tribal territories into a functioning empire.
Historical Significance
Charlemagne’s immediate impact was the creation of the largest unified political entity in Western Europe since the Roman Empire. His conquests brought Christianity to previously pagan regions and established the foundation for the Holy Roman Empire, which would dominate Central European politics for a millennium. The alliance between temporal and spiritual authority exemplified by his papal coronation became a defining feature of medieval European civilization.
The long-term influence of Charlemagne’s reign proved equally significant. The Carolingian Renaissance preserved classical learning during a period when much ancient knowledge might otherwise have been lost. His administrative innovations influenced governmental development throughout medieval Europe, while his promotion of Christianity fundamentally altered the religious landscape of Northern and Central Europe.
However, Charlemagne’s legacy also included the violent imposition of Christianity and Frankish culture on conquered peoples. The Saxon Wars involved what modern scholars recognize as cultural genocide, while his methods of forced conversion created lasting resentment. The empire’s vast extent also proved unsustainable, fragmenting among his grandsons and contributing to centuries of European political division.
Modern Europeans have claimed Charlemagne as a founding father of European unity, though this interpretation reflects contemporary aspirations more than medieval realities. His reign nonetheless established precedents for imperial authority, church-state relations, and cultural development that profoundly shaped European civilization.
Key Developments
- 742: Birth of Charles in the Frankish kingdom
- 768: Becomes King of the Franks alongside brother Carloman
- 771: Sole rule begins after Carloman’s death
- 772: Beginning of the Saxon Wars
- 773-774: Conquest of the Lombard Kingdom in Italy
- 778: Campaign in Spain; defeat at Roncevaux Pass
- 780s: Educational reforms and beginning of Carolingian Renaissance
- 791-796: Conquest of the Avar Khaganate
- 794: Synod of Frankfurt addresses religious and administrative issues
- 800: Coronation as Emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day
- 802: General capitulary standardizing administration across the empire
- 804: End of Saxon Wars with final Saxon submission
- 806: Divisio Regnorum plans empire’s division among sons
- 813: Crowns son Louis the Pious as co-emperor
- 814: Death at Aachen on January 28