Origins
The Code of Ur-Nammu stands as the oldest surviving legal code in human history, predating the more famous Code of Hammurabi by approximately three centuries. Created during the reign of Ur-Nammu (c. 2112-2095 BCE), founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur in ancient Sumer, this code represents a watershed moment in the development of written law and formal legal systems.
Ur-Nammu rose to power after defeating Utu-hengal, ruler of Uruk, and established what became the last major Sumerian dynasty. His reign marked a period of remarkable administrative innovation and cultural flourishing. The code was likely compiled as part of broader efforts to legitimize his rule and standardize administration across his expanding territory. Some scholars attribute the code to his son Shulgi, who succeeded him and continued his administrative reforms.
The code survives only in fragmentary copies made by later scribes, primarily on clay tablets discovered in the ruins of Nippur and Ur. These copies date to the Old Babylonian period, centuries after the original composition, indicating the code’s influence on subsequent legal traditions. The best-preserved tablet, now in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum, contains a prologue and approximately 40 laws, though the original likely included more.
Structure & Function
The Code of Ur-Nammu follows a structure that would become standard for Mesopotamian law codes: a prologue establishing divine and royal authority, followed by case laws presented in conditional format (“if… then…”). The prologue declares Ur-Nammu’s divine mandate from the gods Nanna and Utu, his military achievements, and his establishment of justice in the land. This framing presents law as an expression of cosmic order and royal responsibility.
The laws themselves address a range of social and economic matters: homicide, assault, sexual offenses, marriage and divorce, false accusations, slavery, and agricultural disputes. Most remarkably, the code establishes monetary compensation (silver fines) as the standard penalty for many offenses rather than physical retaliation. This represents a significant departure from the “eye for an eye” principle later associated with Hammurabi’s code and reflects a more developed commercial economy where monetary values could be assigned to injuries.
The code also reveals social stratification in ancient Ur. Different penalties applied depending on the social status of victim and perpetrator—free citizens, semifree dependents, and slaves were treated differently under the law. Women appear in the code primarily in contexts of marriage, divorce, and sexual offenses, with provisions protecting wives from certain abuses while also regulating their conduct.
Historical Significance
The Code of Ur-Nammu demonstrates that sophisticated legal thinking existed centuries before commonly assumed. Its emphasis on monetary compensation over physical punishment suggests a relatively advanced commercial society and represents an early move toward what might be called restorative rather than purely retributive justice. The very existence of written law—publicly proclaimed and applying across the ruler’s territory—represents a fundamental innovation in governance.
The code influenced subsequent Mesopotamian legal traditions, including the Laws of Eshnunna, the Code of Lipit-Ishtar, and ultimately the Code of Hammurabi. These later codes borrowed format, phraseology, and specific provisions from earlier models. The continuity demonstrates how legal traditions accumulated and evolved in the ancient Near East, with each new code building on predecessors while adapting to changed circumstances.
For modern scholars, the Code of Ur-Nammu provides invaluable evidence about Sumerian society, economy, and values. It reveals what behaviors were considered problematic enough to require formal regulation, how disputes were resolved, and what principles guided judicial decision-making. The code stands as testimony to the antiquity and sophistication of human efforts to establish justice through law—a project that continues to the present day.
Key Developments
- ~2112 BCE: Ur-Nammu founds Third Dynasty of Ur
- ~2100 BCE: Code of Ur-Nammu promulgated
- ~2095 BCE: Ur-Nammu dies in battle; son Shulgi succeeds
- ~2094-2047 BCE: Shulgi’s reign; possible refinement of code
- ~2004 BCE: Fall of Ur to Elamites; Third Dynasty ends
- ~1930 BCE: Laws of Eshnunna compose similar code
- ~1934-1924 BCE: Code of Lipit-Ishtar in Isin
- ~1754 BCE: Code of Hammurabi compiles and extends traditions
- 1952 CE: Samuel Noah Kramer publishes first translation