European Union

Origins

The European Union represents the most ambitious and successful experiment in supranational integration in modern history. Growing from a coal and steel community of six nations into a union of 27 countries with half a billion citizens, the EU has transformed European politics, economics, and identity. Its origins lie in the determination to make another European war impossible by binding former enemies together through shared institutions and mutual dependence.

The EU’s roots trace to the devastation of World War II and the Cold War’s threat of further conflict. French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman proposed in 1950 that France and Germany pool their coal and steel production under common supranational authority—industries essential for war-making would be removed from national control. The 1951 Treaty of Paris created the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) among France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. Jean Monnet, the plan’s architect, became the ECSC’s first president.

The success of the ECSC encouraged broader integration. The 1957 Treaties of Rome established the European Economic Community (EEC) and Euratom. The EEC created a customs union, eliminating tariffs among members while establishing common external tariffs, and aspired to a common market with free movement of goods, services, capital, and labor. Subsequent treaties—the Single European Act (1986), Maastricht (1992), Amsterdam (1997), Nice (2001), and Lisbon (2007)—deepened integration and expanded EU competencies. The Maastricht Treaty formally established the European Union and created the path to monetary union.

Structure & Function

The EU operates through a unique institutional framework that is neither a federal state nor a traditional international organization. The European Commission, appointed but not directly elected, proposes legislation and enforces EU law—functioning somewhat like an executive branch. The European Parliament, directly elected by EU citizens since 1979, shares legislative power with the Council of the European Union, which represents member state governments. The European Council, comprising heads of state and government, sets overall direction. The Court of Justice of the European Union interprets EU law and ensures uniform application across member states.

The EU’s competencies have expanded dramatically from the original economic focus. The single market, largely completed by 1992, eliminates barriers to trade and movement among member states. The Schengen Area abolishes internal border controls, allowing free movement across most of the EU. Nineteen member states share the euro currency, managed by the European Central Bank. Common policies address agriculture, fisheries, regional development, environmental protection, and consumer rights. The EU conducts a common foreign and security policy, though member states retain significant autonomy in foreign affairs.

EU law has distinctive features. Directly applicable regulations and directives binding on member states take precedence over national law—a principle established by the Court of Justice in landmark cases. EU citizens have rights—to move, work, and vote in European Parliament elections anywhere in the Union—that are enforced by EU and national courts. This legal framework creates a constitutional order that constrains member state sovereignty in ways unprecedented among nations that remain formally independent.

Historical Significance

The EU has achieved its founders’ core goal: war among EU members has become virtually unthinkable. Countries that fought two devastating wars in the 20th century have bound themselves together so thoroughly that armed conflict between them is now inconceivable. This peace achievement, secured through integration rather than balance of power, earned the EU the 2012 Nobel Peace Prize.

The EU has also created the world’s largest single market and one of its largest economies. Economic integration has promoted prosperity, though benefits have been unevenly distributed. The single market and structural funds have helped less developed members catch up with wealthier ones—Ireland, Spain, Portugal, and Central European states have seen remarkable growth after joining. The euro, despite crisis and criticism, remains the world’s second-largest reserve currency.

Yet the EU faces persistent challenges. The eurozone crisis beginning in 2010 revealed flaws in monetary union without fiscal union. The 2015 migration crisis strained solidarity among member states. Brexit—the United Kingdom’s 2016 vote to leave and 2020 departure—showed that integration is not irreversible. Democratic legitimacy questions plague institutions that seem distant from citizens. Rising nationalism and populism challenge the EU’s liberal internationalist foundations. The EU remains an unprecedented achievement and an ongoing experiment, its future uncertain even as its past represents a remarkable transformation of European politics.