Origins
James Abram Garfield was born on November 19, 1831, in Orange Township, Ohio, in a log cabin that would later feature prominently in his campaign mythology. His father, Abram Garfield, died when James was barely two years old, leaving his mother, Eliza Ballou Garfield, to raise four children in frontier poverty. Despite these humble circumstances, Garfield proved an exceptional student with an insatiable intellectual curiosity. He worked as a canal boat driver, carpenter, and teacher to fund his education, eventually attending the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute (later Hiram College) and graduating from Williams College in Massachusetts in 1856. A devout member of the Disciples of Christ, Garfield became a classical languages professor and later president of the Eclectic Institute. His scholarly achievements distinguished him from most politicians of his era; he could reportedly write simultaneously in Latin with one hand and Greek with the other.
Garfield’s political career began with his election to the Ohio State Senate in 1859 as a Republican. When the Civil War erupted, he recruited volunteers and served with distinction, rising to the rank of major general by 1863 after commanding troops at the battles of Middle Creek and Chickamauga. That same year, he resigned his commission upon election to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he served nine consecutive terms. Garfield became a leading voice on financial matters, chairing the House Appropriations Committee, and aligned himself with the Half-Breed faction of the Republican Party, which favored civil service reform over the patronage-driven Stalwart wing. At the deadlocked 1880 Republican National Convention, Garfield arrived as campaign manager for John Sherman but emerged as a compromise candidate on the thirty-sixth ballot. He narrowly defeated Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock in the general election by fewer than 10,000 popular votes.
Presidency
Garfield’s brief presidency focused primarily on asserting executive independence against congressional domination and addressing civil service corruption. He challenged Senator Roscoe Conkling’s control over New York patronage appointments, nominating William H. Robertson—a Conkling enemy—to the lucrative position of Collector of the Port of New York. This confrontation represented a significant assertion of presidential prerogative over the spoils system that had defined Gilded Age politics. Garfield also prioritized reducing the national debt and investigating fraud in the Post Office Department, where the “Star Route” scandal had enriched contractors through inflated mail delivery contracts in the West. His administration had insufficient time to pursue comprehensive legislative initiatives, though Garfield advocated for federal education funding and supported African American civil rights during Reconstruction’s twilight.
Foreign policy during Garfield’s truncated term remained largely aspirational. He envisioned strengthening commercial ties with Latin America and the Pacific, seeking to expand American trade influence. Secretary of State James G. Blaine initiated diplomatic efforts toward a pan-American conference, though these plans would not materialize until the following decade. Garfield also addressed tensions with Britain over fishing rights and sought to negotiate modifications to the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty regarding a potential Central American canal. These initiatives reflected the emerging commercial expansionism of the Gilded Age but remained unrealized at his death.
Historical Significance
On July 2, 1881, Charles J. Guiteau, a disappointed office-seeker with unstable mental faculties, shot Garfield at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington. The president lingered for eleven agonizing weeks while physicians probed his wound with unsterilized instruments, likely causing the sepsis that killed him on September 19, 1881. Public outrage over the assassination catalyzed support for civil service reform, directly contributing to passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act in 1883 under his successor, Chester A. Arthur. Garfield’s death thus accomplished what his life might not have—breaking the spoils system’s stranglehold on federal employment.
Historians face inherent difficulties evaluating Garfield’s presidency given its brevity of just 200 days. He demonstrated intellectual sophistication, political courage in challenging Conkling, and reformist instincts that suggested consequential leadership. Some scholars view him as a potentially transformative figure whose assassination denied the nation needed reform; others caution against romanticizing what remains largely speculative. His historical significance lies primarily in what his death precipitated rather than what his presidency achieved—a martyrdom that advanced the professionalization of American government.
Key Developments
- November 19, 1831: Born in Orange Township, Cuyahoga County, Ohio
- 1856: Graduated from Williams College with honors
- November 11, 1858: Married Lucretia Rudolph in Hiram, Ohio
- January 1862: Achieved victory at Battle of Middle Creek, earning promotion to brigadier general
- December 1863: Took seat in U.S. House of Representatives, beginning eighteen-year congressional career
- June 8, 1880: Nominated for president on thirty-sixth ballot at Republican National Convention
- November 2, 1880: Elected twentieth president, defeating Winfield Scott Hancock
- March 4, 1881: Inaugurated as president in Washington, D.C.
- March 1881: Nominated William Robertson as Collector of the Port of New York, challenging Stalwart power
- July 2, 1881: Shot by Charles Guiteau at Washington railroad station
- September 19, 1881: Died at Elberon, New Jersey, after eighty days of suffering