Origins
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, a coastal town in the princely state of Kathiawar, Gujarat. His father, Karamchand Gandhi, served as the diwan (chief minister) of Porbandar, while his mother, Putlibai, was a devout Jain whose religious practices profoundly influenced young Gandhi’s moral development. The family belonged to the Vaishya (merchant) caste and followed Vaishnavism, though they were exposed to diverse religious traditions including Jainism and Islam through family connections.
Gandhi’s formative years were marked by academic mediocrity but strong ethical influences. After an arranged marriage to Kasturba Makhanji at age 13, he struggled with personal demons including meat-eating experiments and visits to brothels, experiences that later shaped his emphasis on self-control and moral discipline. In 1888, he traveled to London to study law at University College London, where he encountered Western philosophy, vegetarianism, and comparative religion, reading the Bhagavad Gita for the first time in English translation.
Upon returning to India as a barrister in 1891, Gandhi found limited success in his legal practice. A opportunity arose in 1893 when the Indian trading company Dada Abdulla & Co. hired him for a legal case in South Africa. This journey would transform the shy, unsuccessful lawyer into a formidable advocate for civil rights and social justice.
Development of Satyagraha
Gandhi’s 21-year sojourn in South Africa (1893-1915) proved foundational to his political philosophy and methods. Experiencing racial discrimination firsthand—including being thrown off a train despite holding a first-class ticket—he began organizing the Indian community against discriminatory laws. The £3 annual tax on Indian laborers, restrictions on Indian immigration, and the invalidation of non-Christian marriages became focal points of his activism.
During this period, Gandhi developed satyagraha (holding firmly to truth), his philosophy of nonviolent resistance. Drawing from Hindu concepts of ahimsa (non-violence), Christian teachings on turning the other cheek, and Thoreau’s civil disobedience, he created a systematic approach to social and political change. The method emphasized moral transformation of both the oppressor and the oppressed through voluntary suffering and non-cooperation. His campaigns in South Africa, particularly the 1913 strike involving Indian coal miners and sugar plantation workers, demonstrated satyagraha’s effectiveness in achieving concrete political gains.
Gandhi’s personal transformation accompanied his political evolution. He adopted an increasingly ascetic lifestyle, embracing brahmacharya (celibacy), simple dress, and dietary restrictions. These changes reflected his belief that personal purification was essential for social reform, establishing the integration of private morality and public action that would characterize his later leadership.
Leadership of Indian Independence Movement
Returning to India in 1915, Gandhi initially maintained loyalty to the British Empire, even supporting recruitment for World War I. However, the Rowlatt Acts of 1919, which extended wartime emergency powers and restricted civil liberties, marked his decisive break with colonial authority. His call for a nationwide hartal (general strike) resulted in widespread protests and the tragic Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar, where British troops killed hundreds of unarmed civilians.
The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922) established Gandhi as the preeminent leader of Indian nationalism. He transformed the Indian National Congress from an elite debating society into a mass movement, encouraging Indians to boycott British goods, institutions, and honors. The campaign’s suspension following the Chauri Chaura incident, where protesters killed policemen, demonstrated Gandhi’s unwavering commitment to nonviolence even at the cost of political momentum.
Gandhi’s 1930 Salt March became the defining symbol of Indian resistance to British rule. Walking 240 miles from Ahmedabad to the Arabian Sea, he challenged the colonial salt monopoly by making salt from seawater. This simple act of civil disobedience captured global attention and sparked nationwide protests. The subsequent Round Table Conferences in London, where Gandhi represented the Congress as the sole delegate, elevated him to international prominence as the voice of Indian aspirations.
Challenges and Contradictions
Gandhi’s leadership faced significant challenges from multiple directions. His emphasis on Hindu-Muslim unity clashed with growing communal tensions and the rise of the Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s leadership. Despite his efforts to accommodate Muslim concerns and his opposition to partition, he could not prevent the violent division of India and Pakistan in 1947. The massive displacement and communal violence that followed partition represented perhaps his greatest political failure.
Within the independence movement, Gandhi’s methods sometimes conflicted with other nationalist approaches. Younger leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose criticized his nonviolent philosophy as inadequate for achieving independence, while his periodic fasts and moral appeals frustrated those seeking more direct political action. His suspension of mass movements following incidents of violence often demoralized supporters and provided opportunities for British repression.
Gandhi’s social reform agenda also generated controversy. While he campaigned against untouchability and renamed untouchables “Harijans” (children of God), many Dalits, led by B.R. Ambedkar, viewed his approach as paternalistic and insufficient. His idealization of village life and opposition to industrialization seemed anachronistic to modernizers who envisioned a technologically advanced independent India.
Historical Significance
Gandhi’s contribution to Indian independence cannot be separated from his transformation of political protest methodology. Satyagraha provided a framework for mass resistance that mobilized diverse populations while maintaining moral legitimacy. His ability to communicate complex philosophical concepts through symbolic actions—spinning wheels, salt-making, fasting—made abstract political principles accessible to millions of illiterate Indians.
The global impact of Gandhi’s methods extended far beyond India’s borders. His synthesis of Eastern and Western philosophical traditions created a universal language of nonviolent resistance that influenced liberation movements worldwide. Martin Luther King Jr.’s civil rights campaigns, Nelson Mandela’s early anti-apartheid activism, and numerous other social justice movements drew directly from Gandhian principles and tactics.
However, Gandhi’s legacy remains complex and contested. His assassination by Hindu nationalist Nathuram Godse on January 30, 1948, occurred amid his efforts to end post-partition violence, highlighting the persistent tensions his message of religious harmony could not fully resolve. Contemporary scholars debate his attitudes toward caste, gender, and modernity, questioning whether his social vision was progressive or conservative.
Gandhi’s enduring significance lies not in any single achievement but in his demonstration that moral principles could be effectively translated into political action. His integration of personal transformation with social change, his insistence on means determining ends, and his faith in the capacity for human moral growth continue to inspire movements for justice and human dignity across diverse contexts and cultures.
Key Developments
- 1869: Born in Porbandar, Gujarat, to a family of government officials
- 1888: Travels to London to study law at University College London
- 1893: Arrives in South Africa as legal representative for Indian trading company
- 1894: Founds Natal Indian Congress to fight discriminatory legislation
- 1906: Launches first satyagraha campaign against anti-Asian ordinance in Transvaal
- 1908: Sentenced to prison for the first time for civil disobedience activities
- 1915: Returns to India and establishes Sabarmati Ashram near Ahmedabad
- 1919: Calls for nationwide hartal against Rowlatt Acts, marking break with British authority
- 1920: Launches Non-Cooperation Movement, transforming Congress into mass organization
- 1922: Suspends Non-Cooperation Movement after Chauri Chaura violence; sentenced to six years imprisonment
- 1930: Conducts Salt March from Ahmedabad to Dandi, sparking nationwide civil disobedience
- 1931: Attends Round Table Conference in London as sole Congress representative
- 1942: Launches Quit India Movement with “Do or Die” speech; imprisoned until 1944
- 1947: Witnesses partition of India and Pakistan; begins efforts to stop communal violence
- 1948: Assassinated in New Delhi by Hindu nationalist while en route to prayer meeting