Origins
Timur, known to the West as Tamerlane, was born around 1336 near Samarkand in the Chagatai Khanate, one of the successor states of the Mongol Empire. He came from the Barlas tribe, a Turkified Mongol group that had settled in Transoxiana. Despite later claims to Mongol royal lineage, Timur was likely from a minor noble family rather than direct Chinggisid descent. A riding accident in his youth left him with a permanent limp in his right leg and a withered right arm, earning him the Persian nickname “Timur-i Lang” (Timur the Lame), corrupted by Europeans into “Tamerlane.”
The political fragmentation of Central Asia in the 14th century provided opportunities for ambitious military leaders. Timur gained experience as a mercenary and tribal leader during the chaotic struggles between various khans and emirs. He demonstrated exceptional tactical ability and political cunning, building a network of loyal followers through a combination of personal charisma, military success, and strategic marriages. His early career involved alternating periods of banditry, service to local rulers, and independent raiding.
By the 1360s, Timur had emerged as the dominant figure in Transoxiana through a series of military campaigns and political alliances. Rather than claiming the title of khan, which required Chinggisid blood, he ruled as emir while maintaining nominal Mongol khans as figureheads. This arrangement allowed him to legitimize his rule within traditional steppe political frameworks while exercising real power. His establishment of Samarkand as his capital marked the beginning of his transformation from regional strongman to imperial conqueror.
Conquests and Empire
Timur’s imperial ambitions became evident in the 1380s as he launched systematic campaigns to recreate Mongol imperial glory. His first major target was Persia, where he exploited political divisions among local rulers and religious minorities. Between 1381 and 1387, his forces conquered much of Iran, employing tactics of psychological warfare including the construction of towers built from human skulls. These brutal methods, while shocking contemporary observers, proved effective in encouraging rapid surrender by subsequent targets.
The conquest of the Golden Horde territories between 1388 and 1395 demonstrated Timur’s strategic vision. By defeating Tokhtamysh Khan, he eliminated a potential rival and extended his influence into the Caucasus and southern Russia. His campaigns in India culminated in the devastating sack of Delhi in 1398, where contemporary sources report massive casualties and the near-total destruction of the city. The wealth seized from India financed further military expeditions and architectural projects in Samarkand.
Timur’s western campaigns reached their climax with his invasion of Anatolia and Syria. The Battle of Ankara in 1402 resulted in the capture of Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I and threw the Ottoman Empire into civil war. This victory established Timur as the dominant power from Central Asia to the eastern Mediterranean. His death in 1405 while preparing to invade Ming China prevented what might have been his most ambitious campaign, leaving his empire stretching from the Aegean Sea to the borders of China.
Historical Significance
The immediate impact of Timur’s conquests was devastation on an unprecedented scale. Modern historians estimate that his campaigns resulted in the deaths of approximately 17 million people, roughly 5% of the world’s population at the time. Entire cities were depopulated, irrigation systems destroyed, and regional trade networks disrupted for generations. His conquests contributed to significant demographic and economic decline across much of Asia, with some regions not recovering their pre-Timurid population levels for centuries.
Despite the destruction, Timur’s patronage of arts and learning created lasting cultural achievements. Samarkand became a center of Islamic scholarship, architecture, and crafts, attracting artisans and intellectuals from across the conquered territories. The synthesis of Persian, Arab, Mongol, and Central Asian traditions under Timurid patronage influenced artistic development throughout the Islamic world. His court became a model for later rulers, including his descendant Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
The political legacy of Timur’s empire proved more fragmented. Unlike previous steppe empires, the Timurid domains lacked institutional coherence and quickly divided among his sons and grandsons. However, successor states like the Mughal Empire and various Central Asian khanates traced their legitimacy to Timurid precedent. His conquests also had unintended consequences, including the temporary salvation of the Byzantine Empire and the delay of Ottoman expansion into Europe by several decades.
Key Developments
- c. 1336: Born near Samarkand in the Chagatai Khanate
- 1360s: Emerges as leader of the Barlas tribe
- 1370: Establishes control over Transoxiana, makes Samarkand his capital
- 1372-1373: Conquers Khwarezm
- 1381-1387: First major campaign in Persia
- 1388-1391: Campaigns against the Golden Horde
- 1392-1394: Second Persian campaign
- 1395: Decisive defeat of Tokhtamysh Khan
- 1398: Invasion and sack of Delhi
- 1399-1402: Campaign in Syria and Anatolia
- 1402: Victory at the Battle of Ankara, captures Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I
- 1404: Receives embassy from Henry III of Castile
- 1405: Dies at Otrar while preparing invasion of China
- 1405-1447: Empire fragments among his descendants