Origins
The parliament as institutional form emerged from the need to institutionalize collective decision-making beyond the capacities of direct democracy or pure monarchy. Ancient assemblies—the Athenian ekklesia, Roman comitia, Germanic things—gathered citizens to deliberate and decide. But as political units grew larger, direct participation became impractical. The solution was representation: smaller bodies empowered to act on behalf of larger populations. The Icelandic Althing (established 930 CE) is often cited as the oldest continuous parliament, though its early form resembled a judicial assembly more than a modern legislature.
Medieval European developments shaped the modern parliamentary form. Kings summoned assemblies of nobles, clergy, and eventually town representatives to secure consent for taxation and major policies. The English Parliament, the French Estates-General, the Spanish Cortes, and similar bodies across Europe represented estates rather than individuals—they were gatherings of corporate groups (nobility, clergy, commons) rather than democratic assemblies. Over centuries, particularly in England, these assemblies claimed expanded powers: controlling taxation, approving legislation, and eventually holding executives accountable. The Glorious Revolution (1688) and subsequent developments established parliamentary sovereignty as the foundation of British constitutional order.
The spread of parliamentary institutions accelerated with colonialism and democratization. British settlers established representative assemblies in North America from 1619 (Virginia House of Burgesses); these became foundations for American legislative traditions. Post-revolutionary France developed its own parliamentary forms. The 19th and 20th centuries saw parliaments established worldwide as symbols of legitimate government, though the substance of parliamentary power varied enormously. Today, virtually every state maintains some form of parliament or congress, making it perhaps the most widely adopted institutional form in governance.
Structure & Function
Parliaments share core structural features while varying enormously in detail. Most fundamentally, they are collective bodies—groups of members who deliberate and vote rather than single decision-makers. Members typically represent geographic constituencies, though some systems include proportional representation, functional representation, or appointed members. Sessions follow formal procedures: rules of debate, voting methods, committee structures. These procedures enable orderly deliberation among potentially large groups with diverse views, transforming cacophony into institutional decision.
Bicameralism—division into two chambers—characterizes many parliaments. The British model separates Lords and Commons; the American separates Senate and House. Upper chambers may represent territorial units (as in federal systems), provide aristocratic or expert elements, or simply require deliberative redundancy. Lower chambers typically claim stronger democratic legitimacy through popular election. Relationships between chambers vary: some upper houses exercise near-equal power, others merely delay or review. The logic of bicameralism—multiple filters for legislation, representation of different interests—has proven widely appealing despite added complexity.
Parliamentary procedures have developed into sophisticated systems. Rules govern who may speak, for how long, on what subjects. Committee systems allow detailed examination of legislation and executive action. Voting procedures range from voice votes to recorded divisions. Leadership positions—speakers, majority leaders, whips—manage parliamentary business. These procedures are not merely technical; they shape political outcomes by determining whose voices count and which proposals advance. Parliamentary procedure has become a specialized field, with manuals (like Robert’s Rules) codifying practices for legislative and non-legislative assemblies alike.
Historical Significance
The parliament institutionalized the principle that legitimate government requires consent of the governed, expressed through representatives. This principle challenged monarchical absolutism and established foundations for constitutional democracy. The struggle between crown and parliament in 17th-century England produced theories of limited government, separation of powers, and popular sovereignty that influenced political development worldwide. When American colonists claimed parliamentary self-governance and French revolutionaries established a National Assembly, they drew on parliamentary traditions and ideology.
Parliamentary institutions shaped how societies handle fundamental conflicts. Rather than resolving disputes through violence or autocratic decree, parliamentary systems channel conflict into institutional procedures: debate, amendment, voting, loyal opposition. The legitimacy of parliamentary outcomes depends on procedural fairness rather than substantive agreement—losers accept decisions because procedures were followed, not because they approve the result. This capacity to manage disagreement peacefully makes functional parliaments crucial for democratic stability, though parliaments can also become sites of obstruction and polarization when procedural norms break down.
Contemporary parliaments face challenges from executive dominance, party discipline, and public disillusionment. In many systems, executives effectively control legislative agendas; party voting reduces representatives to rubber stamps. Citizens often view parliaments as theatrical rather than substantive. Yet the form persists and spreads: new democracies establish parliaments; authoritarian regimes maintain nominal legislatures; international organizations create parliamentary assemblies. The parliament remains the primary institutional mechanism for collective representation and lawmaking, its procedures and principles shaping political life even when practice falls short of ideal.
Key Developments
- 930: Icelandic Althing established; often called first parliament
- 1188: Cortes of León includes town representatives; early Iberian parliament
- 1215: Magna Carta; English barons constrain royal power
- 1265: Simon de Montfort’s Parliament includes elected burgesses
- 1295: Model Parliament under Edward I establishes Commons representation
- 1414: English Commons asserts sole right to initiate money bills
- 1628: Petition of Right limits royal prerogative
- 1649: Parliament tries and executes Charles I
- 1688-1689: Glorious Revolution; Bill of Rights establishes parliamentary supremacy
- 1707: Union creates Parliament of Great Britain
- 1787: US Constitution establishes Congress with Senate and House
- 1789: French National Assembly formed; Estates-General transforms
- 1832: Great Reform Act expands British electoral franchise
- 1911: Parliament Act limits House of Lords powers
- 1918-1920: Universal suffrage spreads across Western democracies
- 1945-1960: Decolonization; new parliaments established worldwide
- 1979: First direct elections to European Parliament