Al-Azhar University

Origins

Al-Azhar University, founded in 970 CE in Cairo, stands as one of the oldest continuously operating universities in the world and has served for over a millennium as the preeminent center of Islamic learning in the Sunni Muslim world. Its history intertwines with the religious, political, and intellectual development of Islamic civilization.

The institution began as Al-Azhar Mosque, founded by the Fatimid general Jawhar al-Siqilli shortly after the Fatimid conquest of Egypt and the establishment of Cairo as the new dynasty’s capital. The mosque was named “Al-Azhar” (The Luminous) in honor of Fatimah al-Zahra, daughter of the Prophet Muhammad, from whom the Fatimid caliphs claimed descent. Within two years of its founding, the mosque began hosting study circles where scholars taught Islamic law, theology, and Arabic language.

The Fatimid caliphate, adhering to Ismaili Shia Islam, initially used Al-Azhar to propagate its distinctive theological and legal positions. However, when Saladin conquered Egypt in 1171 CE and restored Sunni Islam, Al-Azhar was refounded as a center of Sunni scholarship. This transition proved transformative: under the subsequent Ayyubid and Mamluk dynasties, Al-Azhar received generous endowments and attracted scholars from across the Islamic world, establishing its reputation as the leading institution for Sunni religious education.

Structure & Function

Al-Azhar combines the functions of mosque, university, and religious authority. As a mosque, it hosts daily prayers and serves as a sacred space; as a university, it provides comprehensive education in Islamic sciences and increasingly in modern disciplines; as a religious authority, its scholars issue legal opinions (fatwas) and its Grand Imam is considered one of the most authoritative voices in Sunni Islam.

Traditional education at Al-Azhar followed the patterns common to Islamic madrasas. Students gathered around scholars in study circles within the mosque, learning through reading and memorization of texts, commentary, and oral examination. The curriculum centered on Islamic sciences: Quranic exegesis (tafsir), hadith (prophetic traditions), Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), Arabic grammar and rhetoric, and theology (kalam). Students might spend years or even decades in study, and the most advanced became scholars themselves, perpetuating chains of learning stretching back centuries.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, Al-Azhar underwent significant modernization while seeking to preserve its traditional mission. Modern faculties were added covering medicine, engineering, commerce, and other fields alongside the traditional religious sciences. Women were admitted beginning in 1962. Today Al-Azhar encompasses the mosque, the university with numerous faculties and branch campuses throughout Egypt, a network of preparatory and secondary schools, and the office of the Grand Imam who heads the institution and speaks authoritatively on matters of Islamic interpretation.

Historical Significance

Al-Azhar’s influence on Islamic civilization has been immense. For over a thousand years, it has educated scholars who have shaped religious thought, jurisprudence, and Arabic literature throughout the Muslim world. The scholars of Al-Azhar have been custodians of Islamic tradition, transmitting and interpreting sacred texts across generations. Students have come from across Africa, Asia, and beyond, creating networks of learning that have connected distant Muslim communities.

The institution has also navigated complex relationships with political power. Under Mamluk rule (1250-1517), Al-Azhar reached its golden age, attracting scholars like Ibn Khaldun. Ottoman rule brought subordination to Istanbul but also continued patronage. The French occupation under Napoleon (1798-1801) briefly threatened the institution. Muhammad Ali’s modernizing reforms in the 19th century marginalized Al-Azhar somewhat, but subsequent rulers sought to use its prestige for legitimacy. Under Nasser, Al-Azhar was nationalized and reformed, bringing it under state control while expanding its reach.

Today Al-Azhar remains central to debates within Islam. Its scholars have generally represented a mainstream, moderate Sunni position, rejecting extremism while defending traditional Islamic values. The Grand Imam’s pronouncements on issues from terrorism to interfaith relations carry significant weight. The institution faces tensions between preserving traditional scholarship and engaging with modernity, between institutional independence and government influence, and between its Egyptian roots and its global significance. These tensions mirror broader challenges facing Islamic institutions worldwide.