Origins
Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743, at Shadwell plantation in the Virginia colony, the third child among ten siblings. His father, Peter Jefferson, was a successful planter and surveyor who died when Thomas was fourteen, leaving him substantial landholdings. Jefferson received classical education at local schools before enrolling at the College of William and Mary in 1760, where he studied mathematics, metaphysics, and philosophy under Professor William Small, who introduced him to Enlightenment thought. He subsequently read law under George Wythe, one of colonial Virginia’s most distinguished jurists, gaining admission to the bar in 1767. These formative years cultivated Jefferson’s intellectual breadth, encompassing architecture, natural science, classical languages, and political philosophy. His 1772 marriage to Martha Wayles Skelton brought additional property but also debt; Martha’s death in 1782 left Jefferson a widower who never remarried.
Jefferson’s political career began in the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1769, where he aligned with the patriot faction opposing British colonial policies. His reputation as a skilled writer led the Continental Congress to assign him primary authorship of the Declaration of Independence in 1776, a document that established his place among Revolutionary leaders. He served as Virginia’s governor during the difficult years of 1779-1781, a tenure marked by British invasion and subsequent criticism. Following diplomatic service in France from 1784 to 1789, Jefferson returned to serve as the nation’s first Secretary of State under George Washington. His opposition to Alexander Hamilton’s financial program catalyzed the formation of the Democratic-Republican Party. After serving as Vice President under John Adams, Jefferson won the contested election of 1800, which required thirty-six ballots in the House of Representatives to resolve the electoral tie with Aaron Burr.
Presidency
Jefferson’s domestic agenda sought to reduce federal power and reverse Federalist policies. His administration eliminated internal taxes, reduced the national debt, and shrank the military establishment. The president maintained that republican government required limited central authority, agrarian virtue, and strict constitutional interpretation. Yet Jefferson demonstrated pragmatic flexibility when opportunity arose; his authorization of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 doubled the nation’s territory despite his constitutional reservations about federal power to acquire new lands. He commissioned the Lewis and Clark expedition to explore these western territories and establish American claims to the Pacific Northwest. Jefferson’s second term proved more troubled, as the Burr conspiracy raised concerns about western separatism, and the president’s attempts to maintain judicial independence clashed with Federalist judges, most notably in his unsuccessful effort to remove Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase through impeachment.
Foreign affairs dominated Jefferson’s second administration as European warfare threatened American neutrality and commerce. British impressment of American sailors and the 1807 Chesapeake-Leopard affair brought the nations close to war. Rather than military confrontation, Jefferson pursued economic coercion through the Embargo Act of 1807, which prohibited American ships from trading with foreign ports. This policy proved economically devastating, particularly to New England’s commercial interests, while failing to compel British or French concessions. The embargo’s enforcement required expansive federal powers that contradicted Jefferson’s limited-government philosophy. Congress repealed the measure shortly before Jefferson left office, leaving the underlying conflicts with Britain unresolved for his successor.
Historical Significance
Jefferson bequeathed to James Madison a nation territorially transformed but diplomatically imperiled. The Louisiana Purchase secured the Mississippi River valley and established precedent for continental expansion, while the embargo’s failure demonstrated the limits of economic statecraft. Jefferson’s retirement to Monticello allowed him to pursue his vision for public education, founding the University of Virginia in 1819. His voluminous correspondence with John Adams during their final years produced remarkable reflections on republican government and revolutionary memory.
Historical assessment of Jefferson remains contested. Scholars recognize his contributions to American political thought, particularly his articulation of natural rights, religious liberty, and democratic governance expressed in the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom and the Declaration of Independence. However, the fundamental contradiction between his egalitarian rhetoric and his lifelong ownership of enslaved people, including evidence of his relationship with Sally Hemings, presents interpretive challenges that contemporary historians cannot ignore. Jefferson’s expansionist vision facilitated Indigenous dispossession across the continent. His presidency established important precedents regarding executive power, territorial acquisition, and party governance, while his philosophical writings continue influencing American political discourse.
Key Developments
- April 13, 1743: Born at Shadwell plantation, Goochland County, Virginia
- January 1, 1772: Married Martha Wayles Skelton at her family estate
- June 1776: Drafted the Declaration of Independence as Continental Congress delegate
- 1779-1781: Served as Governor of Virginia during British military campaigns
- 1785-1789: Served as Minister to France, observing the early French Revolution
- 1790-1793: Served as first Secretary of State under President Washington
- February 17, 1801: Elected president by House of Representatives after electoral tie
- March 4, 1801: Inaugurated as third president in Washington, D.C.
- April 30, 1803: Louisiana Purchase treaty signed, acquiring 828,000 square miles
- December 1807: Embargo Act enacted prohibiting foreign trade
- March 4, 1809: Retired to Monticello after completing second term
- July 4, 1826: Died at Monticello, fifty years after Declaration’s adoption