Origins
The United States District Courts were established by the Judiciary Act of 1789, which divided the nation into judicial districts and created a district court for each. These original thirteen districts corresponded to the eleven states that had ratified the Constitution plus Maine (then part of Massachusetts) and Kentucky (then part of Virginia). Congress intended district courts to handle admiralty cases, minor federal crimes, and disputes involving federal revenue—leaving most litigation to state courts.
The district courts’ jurisdiction expanded dramatically over the following two centuries. The Civil War amendments enabled federal civil rights enforcement. The growth of federal regulatory agencies created new categories of federal cases. Congressional expansion of “federal question” jurisdiction—cases arising under federal law—transformed district courts from specialized tribunals into general-purpose trial courts handling everything from antitrust to immigration to intellectual property disputes.
Each new state’s admission to the Union brought creation of corresponding judicial districts. Larger states were eventually divided into multiple districts—New York has four (Northern, Southern, Eastern, Western), Texas has four, California has four. Today’s 94 federal judicial districts cover all states, territories, and the District of Columbia. District boundaries, once drawn by Congress, have proven remarkably stable despite massive population shifts.
Structure & Function
The district courts employ approximately 680 authorized district judgeships, supplemented by several hundred magistrate judges who handle preliminary matters and, with party consent, full trials. District judges, appointed by the President with Senate confirmation for life tenure, preside over trials, rule on motions, manage cases from filing through disposition, and oversee juries. Each district also has a clerk’s office administering court operations, probation officers supervising released defendants, and other support staff.
District courts exercise original jurisdiction over federal civil and criminal matters. Civil jurisdiction includes cases arising under federal law (“federal question”), disputes between citizens of different states exceeding $75,000 (“diversity”), cases involving the federal government, and specialized areas like bankruptcy and admiralty. Criminal jurisdiction covers offenses defined by federal statute—drug trafficking, bank robbery, tax evasion, civil rights violations, and other crimes Congress has federalized.
Trial procedure in district courts combines constitutional requirements with Federal Rules of Civil and Criminal Procedure. Criminal defendants enjoy Sixth Amendment rights to jury trial, counsel, and confrontation of witnesses. Civil cases may proceed before juries or judges depending on the issues and parties’ choices. District judges rule on evidence, instruct juries, and ensure proceedings comply with constitutional standards. Their decisions are reviewable by the Courts of Appeals.
Historical Significance
The district courts serve as the entry point for federal litigation affecting every aspect of American life. Constitutional challenges to government action, enforcement of civil rights laws, prosecution of federal crimes, resolution of commercial disputes—all begin in district courts. The decisions of individual district judges ripple through the legal system, establishing local precedent and generating the appeals that shape circuit and Supreme Court law.
Certain district courts have outsized influence due to their location and caseload. The Southern District of New York (Manhattan) handles much of the nation’s securities litigation and major commercial disputes. The District of Delaware dominates corporate litigation due to Delaware’s status as the incorporation home for most public companies. The Eastern District of Texas became a magnet for patent litigation before recent procedural changes. Forum selection—choosing which district to file in—is itself a strategic decision in federal litigation.
The district courts have been venues for historic cases defining American law. The desegregation orders enforcing Brown v. Board of Education were issued by district judges facing intense local opposition. Watergate prosecutions proceeded in the District of Columbia. Major antitrust cases against AT&T, Microsoft, and technology companies have been tried in district courts. The courage and judgment of individual district judges has shaped constitutional rights and economic structure.
Key Developments
- 1789: Judiciary Act creates district courts in each state
- 1801: Circuit court duties separated from district courts (briefly)
- 1802: Judiciary Act of 1801 repealed; original system restored
- 1875: Federal question jurisdiction substantially expanded
- 1891: District courts become primary trial courts as circuit courts become appellate
- 1911: Original circuit courts abolished entirely
- 1938: Federal Rules of Civil Procedure standardize district court practice
- 1946: Administrative Procedure Act governs judicial review of agency action
- 1968: Federal Magistrates Act creates magistrate judges to assist district judges
- 1978: Bankruptcy courts established as units of district courts
- 1988: Federal Courts Study Committee examines district court structure
- 2005: Class Action Fairness Act channels major class actions to federal courts
- 2015: Electronic filing becomes mandatory in most districts
- 2020: Districts adapt to virtual proceedings during pandemic